Our research in another article indicated that cannabis’s motherland is the Tibetan Plateau in modern-day China. West of Tibet, up in China’s Pamir Mountains, is where the oldest known evidence of marijuana smoking exists. Although other sites have older microfossils of cannabis, only this site has proof that people were blazing up weed with highly concentrated THC.
For spooky season, Head Magazine set out to discover whether there was a connection in ancient China between weed and ghosts. Granted, the archaeological site with evidence of smoking marijuana was in a graveyard, where ghosts are likely to hang out anyhow. But we wanted something less obvious for our discovery. So, we conducted a digital archaeological excavation to exhume China’s haunted history online – in Chinese.
Here’s what we found …
In “Cannabis’s Ancient Voyage West,” we examine how cannabis left Tibet to become a world-traveler. Photo by Fred Dunn / CC BY-NC 4.0 via Creative Commons
Research Method and Disclaimer
To locate obscure information, the author conducted most of her research in the target language rather than in English. Given that the author is neither fluent in nor a student of Chinese (traditional or simplified, characters or pinyin), she relied on Google’s translation plug-in to locate and read modern and historical Chinese texts online. She used the following combinations of Boolean operators and search strings on Google:
- “麻賁” 或者 “大麻” 和 “鬼” 或者 “鬼魂” (the equivalent of “hemp seeds” OR “marijuana” AND “ghost” OR “ghosts” in English)
- “麻賁” 或者 “大麻” 和 “神農” (the equivalent of “hemp seeds” OR “marijuana” AND “Shennong” in English)
- “神農” 和 “鬼” 或者 “鬼魂” (the equivalent of “Shennong” AND “ghost” OR “ghosts” in English)
On websites whose web copy or PDF files could not be translated automatically from Chinese into English, the author searched the page for individual words in the original Chinese characters – 大麻 (marijuana), 麻賁 (hemp seeds), 鬼 (ghost), 鬼魂 (ghosts) and/or 鬼魂 (Shennong) – and then copied and pasted the surrounding primary-source content into Google’s Chinese-to-English translation webpage.
Then, to determine whether the translation provided was verbatim or idiomatic, she reversed the translation to see whether Google produced the same Chinese characters when translating from English to Chinese. This technique also assisted her with recognizing patterns in primary-source materials to sharpen her research focus.
The Sources and Suggested Reading section at the end of this article specifies which sources were translated with Google. It is the author’s hope and expectation that Google’s translations were accurate; she cannot, however, guarantee that they were.
The author successfully used this same research technique to conduct research in Icelandic for “The Taming of Jólakötturinn, Iceland’s Ferocious ‘Yule Cat’: From Blood and Gore to Peace and Goodwill.” Original Illustration by Marina Dejanovic – Used With Permission
Who discovered the therapeutical properties of cannabis?
The ancient Chinese book “Records of the Grand Historian: Supplement to the Annals of the Three Sovereigns” is the definitive collection of traditional Chinese medicine techniques. Prior to this book’s compilation, these techniques had only ever been passed down orally from one generation to the next.
The book compares and contrasts varying holistic healing methods given to mankind by three deities (aka sovereigns): Fuxi, Nuwa and Shennong. The latter of these is the answer to the question posed in the subheading; it was Shennong who discovered the therapeutical properties of cannabis. A fascinating and comprehensive look into Shennong’s life is available in a literary review by Scarlet Palmer. Here is a more concise summary from Gillian Daniel:
“Shen Nong (神农), or ‘Divine Farmer,’ was one of the Three Sovereigns, a group of mythological rulers and deities from ancient China circa 2852 to 2070 BC who established the Chinese life-arts. Said to have been born the son of a princess and a heavenly dragon, Shen Nong is believed to have taught the ancient Chinese their practices of agriculture, as well as the use of herbal drugs, which became the foundation of traditional Chinese medicine.”
For thousands of years, Shennong has been regarded in China as the originator of medicinal cannabis. Chinese Woodcut – Gan Bozong (Tang period, 618-907), CC BY 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
Shennong is credited with having written his own book, “Shennong Bencaojing” (神農本草經), which is translated as “Shennong’s Classic of Materia Medica” or “Shennong’s Herbal Classic.” The standard description provided by retailers for the book is:
“Shennong’s Classic of Materia Medica, also known as the ‘Benjing,’ is China’s earliest extant pharmacological treatise. It summarizes the achievements of pharmacology before the Qin Dynasty. It begins with a preface, outlining drug theory and coordination principles. It then contains 365 medicinal herbs, divided into three major categories. Each is described with its alias, properties, flavor, habitat, and primary therapeutic effects. The efficacy of many of these herbs has been confirmed using modern scientific methods. The original text was lost long ago, but its contents have been preserved in successive herbal treatises. Existing copies are all edited by later generations. This book is a must-have for traditional Chinese medicine [TCM] practitioners and teachers and students at TCM schools.”
You can read the entire book free of charge, courtesy of Chinese Text Project, in its original language here. Of the 10 foundational books in traditional Chinese medicine, this book is one of the top two most important, and it’s how Shennong earned his famous affiliation with cannabis.
As stated by Taiwan’s Public Television Service: “According to historical records, as early as 2737 BC, Shennong discovered the medicinal value of hemp and documented it in the Shennong Compendium of Materia Medica.” Going into greater detail, National Taiwan University’s “Case Press” points out that Shennong found that all of cannabis’s stems, stalks and leaves had uses. With even greater specificity, “Headline Daily” (頭條日報) quotes the book:
“Cannabis leaves: Treats roundworms, scorpion venom, and malaria. Cannabis stems or bark: Treats blood stasis, urination, and injuries from falls. Cannabis roots: Treats hemorrhage caused by heat, blood stasis from injuries, abdominal distension, shortness of breath, and wrist fractures. Retting hemp juice: Relieves thirst and treats blood stasis.”
Chinese character for hemp.In Shennong’s book, the character 麻賁 officially referred to hemp seeds, but he described them as having psychoactive effects, leaving one to reasonably conclude that marijuana (大麻) was equally connoted by 麻賁.
Who said anything about ghosts?
In his three volumes in “Shennong’s Herbal Classic,” Shennong goes into painstaking detail for hundreds of holistic medicines derived from plants and animals, ranging from wolfsbane leaves to dog penises. Of cannabis (aka hemp seeds, 麻蕡, transliterated here as “Ma Fen”), he notes in Line 93 under “Insect and Beast Division Top Grade” (蟲獸部上品) in Vol. 2:
“Ma Fen has a pungent and neutral flavor. It treats seven injuries, benefits the five internal organs, and relieves blood and cold. Excessive consumption can cause visions of ghosts and madness. Long-term consumption can promote spiritual enlightenment and lighten the body.”
Original Chinese text: 麻蕡 味辛平。主治七傷，利五藏，下血寒氣，多食令人見鬼狂走。久服通神明輕身。麻子，味甘平。主補中益氣。久服肥健不老。一名麻勃。生川谷。
From what “Shennong’s Herbal Classic” says, a little cannabis can boost your physical health, and a lot of cannabis can boost your spiritual health.Photo by form PxHere
Are we sure that’s what he meant?
Here’s where things become debatable. Some translations of this line include the phrase “visions of ghosts,” whereas other translations omit that phrase or add nuance. For instance, when providing a historical perspective of controlled substances, author Zhiheng Li states:
“The Classic of Materia Medica records that excessive consumption of hemp seeds (hemp seeds are called huomaren, and the shelled seeds are called huomaren) can have hallucinogenic effects (eating too much can cause visions and madness, while prolonged use can lead to spiritual awakening). The Compendium of Materia Medica records the use of hemp flowers, hemp seeds, hemp seeds, hemp oil, and hemp leaves as medicinal herbs, including anesthesia, analgesia, and antiemetics, demonstrating its medicinal value since ancient times (Zhan Dongrong, 2014).” (emphasis added)
Original Chinese text: 經》記載有麻賁（大麻種子稱火麻仁，其帶殼者稱之）吃 過量會有迷幻作用（多食，人見鬼，狂走，久服通神 明）；《本草綱目》則有麻勃（麻花）、麻實（果實）、 麻仁、麻油及麻葉入藥的記載，作為麻醉、鎮痛、止吐等 用途，顯示其醫療價值自古 即為人所知（詹東榮， 2014）。(emphasis added) (Note the inclusion of the character for “ghost,” 鬼.)
In social media, to cite something modern and commonplace, a Facebook post from 睡睡平安 (Sleep, Sleep, Peace) quotes Shennong by saying that consuming too much marijuana can cause “ghostly and insane hallucinations.” However, this doesn’t hold up from a linguistic standpoint. The adjectival form of the noun “ghost,” which is “ghostly” (幽靈的 in Chinese), appears nowhere in the post’s quotation.
In another Facebook post, one from 大麻乘 (Marijuana), the person provides an overwhelmingly impressive literature review with quotations from about 20 sources. Each source claims to be quoting Shennong’s book, and yet there are discrepancies among the quotations there too.
Which translation is correct? The answer is elusive. /Photo by Pavel Danilyuk:pexels.com
What’s interesting is that the words in the English translation change when only one Chinese sentence is input for translation, versus the full Chinese paragraph, indicating an idiomatic shift. When you enter the full quotation provided above, Google translates the third sentence as, “Excessive consumption can cause visions and madness.”
When you delete the text before and after that sentence, leaving only that sentence, Google translates that same sentence – with no alterations made to it – as “Eating too much will make people see ghosts and run wildly.” This favors the argument that the context (i.e., idiomatic translation) didn’t mean to imply “ghosts” in the sense of departed spirits, but rather something lost in translation referring loosely to hallucinations.
Setting linguistics aside, here’s a less nerdy way to look at the differences among the translations. A more comprehensive argument came from a skeptic in a thorough, if not completely reliable, article on witches’ communication with ghosts and gods. Here’s an excerpt:
“There are numerous cases both in China and abroad of shamans communicating with spirits and gods after taking drugs. Medically speaking, drugs can indeed induce hallucinations. According to the Shennong Herbal Classic: Ma Ben…consumption of it causes visions of ghosts and madness. Long-term consumption can lead to visions of spirits. … ‘Ma Ze’ refers to the seeds of plants in the Cannabis sativa family. Consuming these plants can cause intense hallucinations, including the sight of distorted human forms, known as ‘ghost visions.’ … Based on this, it is speculated that the phenomenon of shamans ‘communicating with spirits’ after taking drugs does exist. However, the visions of shamans are not ghosts or gods, but rather hallucinatory images that appear after taking the drugs. Based on a firm belief in ghosts, people have mistaken these magical hallucinatory images for living spirits and gods. This is truly a historical misunderstanding.”
Original Chinese text: 巫師服藥通鬼神在國內外都有不少實例。從醫學上講，藥物也確實可以使人致幻。據《神農本草經》載：麻賁……多食令人見鬼，狂走。久服通神明。… “麻責”即大麻籽．科植物，食用這些植物，均可產生強烈幻覺，看到變態的人形，即所謂“見鬼”。… 據此推測，巫服用藥料后“通神明”的現象確實存在，不過巫師看到的不是什麼鬼神，而是食用藥以後出現的幻覺形象。人們基於對鬼魂的篤信，把這種神奇的幻覺形象當作有生命力的鬼神，這實在上一場歷史的誤會。
As we explore in “Why Did the Ancient Celts Get High on Halloween?”, it’s decidedly within the realm of possibility that sociocultural deities connected with entities beyond the veil while high. Photo by jozefklopacka / 123rf
Returning once more to linguistics, the character for “ghost” (鬼) appears in the source material, wherein the core noun phrase 食令人見鬼狂 means “food that makes people see ghosts,” and an even more reduced noun phrase 令人見鬼狂 means “ghost-seeing” (both according to Google’s translation). So, perhaps Shennong really did mean ghosts.
Moreover, it’s worth noting that the word 鬼魂 culturally denotes “spirit of a dead person,” according to the native-speaker-curated dictionary on WordReference.com. So, the word isn’t something that’s a passable alternative for “hallucination” or a euphemism for “ghost” here, as some translations would have it to be.
What is Shennong’s millennia-old legacy?
The name Shennong is so organically associated with cannabis that it was used by a restaurant and pub owner as a code name to sell marijuana-infused scones. Sanli News Network provided a secondhand summary of the scandal that rocked Taipei in November 2024:
“According to the Liberty Times, while carrying out a drug raid, the police discovered someone online using the nickname ‘Shennongshi’ and leaving ambiguous messages such as ‘rainbow, reliance, marijuana, price,’ etc. After tracing the clues, they found 23-year-old Wu and seized 15 grams of marijuana and 400 grams of marijuana scones at his residence and restaurant. … Wu claimed that it was not easy to run a restaurant and pub, so he wanted to ‘create a different and fresh feeling’ in order to maintain operations. However, he was caught before he could eat or sell the food.”
A more subtle name-drop appeared in a headline in “New Taipei City Report”: “Reincarnation of Shennong? Unemployed man acquitted after growing marijuana to observe its growth” (Original Chinese: 神農氏轉世？種大麻辯觀察生長 無業男竟獲判無罪). At no point in the actual article is Shennong’s name invoked, but the news outlet knew that readers would understand what was implied: Only Shennong (in Wu’s body) could have pulled this off!
Conclusion
Whether Shennong saw ghosts or not, we like the mental picture painted by the idea of a godlike figure in 27th century B.C. China getting high and hanging out with the spirits of the departed. We say, go with it!
The information in this article and any included images are for educational purposes only. This information is neither a substitute for, nor does it replace, professional legal advice or medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. If you have any concerns or questions about laws, regulations or your health, you should always consult an attorney, physician or other licensed professional.
Kathleen Hearons is a writer, editor, linguist and voice over actor from Los Angeles. She specializes in creative writing and research-intensive analysis and reporting.
Pumpkin stencil designed and carved by Kathleen Hearons.
Sources and Suggested Reading
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Casad, Carter. “18,000 years of cannabis: A genetic history of marijuana.” WikiLeaf via Genetic Literacy Project. July 7, 2022. Accessed Oct. 26, 2025. https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2022/07/07/18000-years-of-cannabis-a-genetic-history-of-marijuana/.
Chen, Zujie, et al. “Marijuana in Perspective 1: Multiple pictures show you the ‘good and evil’ of marijuana,” translated by Google. Public Television Service (PTS) Foundation (Taiwan, Republic of China). Oct. 5, 2021. Accessed Oct. 25, 2025. https://news.pts.org.tw/article/547826.
“Complete Book of Agricultural Administration, Ming Dynasty, Xu Guangqi,” translated by Google. KK News (Republic of China). June 7, 2021. Accessed Oct. 25, 2025. https://kknews.cc/n/v5grk42.html.
Daniel, Gillian. “The Legend of the Divine Farmer.” The Public Domain Review. Nov. 3, 2015. Accessed Oct. 25, 2025. https://publicdomainreview.org/essay/the-legend-of-the-divine-farmer/.
“Deciphering the ‘Witches’ Communication with Ghosts and Gods’ Theory,” translated by Google. Accessed Oct. 25, 2025. https://look.thisiscm.com/0526657556/8095_56.html.
Dharmananda, Subhuti. “The Lessons of Shennong: The Basis of Chinese Herb Medicine.” ITM Online. Accessed Oct. 26, 2025. http://www.itmonline.org/arts/shennong.htm.
Dr. Hemp. “I hear Ph.D.s are turning to marijuana. Why?,” translated by Google. Headline Daily, kknews.cc (Republic of China). Aug. 18, 2017. Accessed Oct. 25, 2025. https://kknews.cc/news/46ay9o3.html.
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Hearons, Kathleen. “Why Did the Ancient Celts Get High on Halloween?.” Head Magazine. Accessed Oct. 26, 2025. https://headmagazine.com/why-did-the-ancient-celts-get-high-on-halloween/.
Hemp Era. “What is hemp? This article is enough for you to learn about hemp,” translated by Google. Zhihu. Nov. 24, 2020. Accessed Oct. 25, 2025. https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/309959230.
Hu, Shurong. “[Science History Salon] The Good and Evil Plant – Cannabis,” translated by Google. National Cheng Kung University (Republic of China). Dec. 23, 2018. Accessed Oct. 25, 2025. https://knowledge.colife.org.tw/one_speech.aspx?sid=11409.
Kobayashi, Makiko, Arata Momohara, S. Okitsu, S. Yanagisaw and T. Okamoto. “Fossil hemp fruits in the earliest Jomon period from the Okinoshima site, Chiba Prefecture, Japan.” Japanese Journal of Historical Botany, Vol. 16 (2008): 11-18. Accessed Oct. 25, 2025. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285448185_Fossil_hemp_fruits_in_the_earliest_Jomon_period_from_the_Okinoshima_site_Chiba_Prefecture_Japan/citation/download.
Li, Zhiheng. “From opium, amphetamines, and ketamine to etomidate—A historical perspective on the distinctions and management trends of controlled substances and narcotics,” translated by Google (August 2025). doi:10.6460/CPCP.202508_(41).0005. Accessed Oct. 25, 2025. https://www.cprc.moj.gov.tw/media/20214822/%E7%89%B9%E7%A8%BF_%E7%8A%AF%E7%BD%AA%E5%AD%B8-%E5%BE%9E%E9%B4%89%E7%89%87-%E5%AE%89%E9%9D%9E%E4%BB%96%E5%91%BD-%E6%84%B7%E4%BB%96%E5%91%BD%E5%88%B0%E4%BE%9D%E6%89%98%E5%92%AA%E9%85%AF-%E7%94%B1%E5%A4%A7%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E8%AB%87%E7%AE%A1%E5%88%B6%E8%97%A5%E5%93%81%E8%88%87%E6%AF%92%E5%93%81%E7%9A%84%E5%8D%80%E9%9A%94%E8%88%87%E7%AE%A1%E7%90%86%E8%B6%A8%E5%8B%A2_%E6%9D%8E%E5%BF%97%E6%81%92.pdf?mediaDL=true.
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Marijuana post on Facebook on Jan. 22, 2020, translated by Google. Accessed Oct. 25, 2025. https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=2700466240067528&id=996609817119854&set=a.1001260413321461.
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Sleep, Sleep, Peace post on Facebook on June 9, 2025, translated by Google. Accessed Oct. 25, 2025. https://www.facebook.com/sleepverywell/posts/%E5%B0%8F%E5%BF%83%E8%8D%89%E7%9A%84%E9%99%B7%E9%98%B1%E6%94%BE%E9%AC%86%E9%81%8E%E9%A0%AD%E5%8F%AF%E8%83%BD%E8%B3%A0%E4%B8%8A%E4%B8%80%E8%BC%A9%E5%AD%90%E4%BD%A0%E5%8F%AF%E8%83%BD%E8%81%BD%E9%81%8E%E5%A4%A7%E9%BA%BB%E9%80%99%E5%80%8B%E5%90%8D%E5%AD%97%E4%B9%9F%E8%A2%AB%E7%A8%B1%E7%82%BA%E8%8D%89%E9%BA%BB%E4%BB%94%E6%88%96%E8%80%81%E9%BC%A0%E5%B0%BE%E5%B7%B4%E8%A6%BA%E5%BE%97%E5%AE%83%E5%8F%AA%E6%98%AF%E5%A4%A9%E7%84%B6%E6%A4%8D%E7%89%A9%E8%AE%93%E4%BA%BA%E6%84%9F%E5%88%B0%E6%94%BE%E9%AC%86%E8%80%8C%E4%B8%94%E5%9C%8B%E5%A4%96%E6%9C%89%E9%83%A8%E4%BB%BD%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E9%96%8B%E6%94%BE%E5%90%88%E6%B3%95%E4%BD%86%E5%9C%A8%E5%8F%B0%E7%81%A3%E5%AE%83%E4%BB%8D%E6%98%AF%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%8C%E7%B4%9A%E6%AF%92%E5%93%81/1151674320336883/.
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